Ginkgo biloba is obtained from the Ginkgo biloba Linne tree. The chemical components of the ginkgo leaf have distinctive intrinsic pharmacological properties, which work synergistically to produce more potent pharmacological effects. For example, they protect neurons from oxidative damage, potentially preventing the progression of tissue degeneration in patients with dementia. The Beta-amyloid peptides in Ginkgo biloba leaf extract also appear to inhibit toxicity and cell death as well as increasing the number of alpha-adrenoreceptors in the brain.

In 1998 Barry S. Oken of Oregon Health Sciences University and his colleagues considered more than 50 Ginkgo studies involving subjects with mental impairment and selected four that met a conservative set of criteria, including sufficient characterization of the Alzheimer's diagnosis, use of a standardized ginkgo extract, and a placebo-controlled, double-blind design (in which neither the subjects nor the investigators know until the end whether a given patient is receiving the extract or the placebo). Each of these studies showed that the Alzheimer's patients who received ginkgo performed better on various cognitive tests than did patients who received a placebo. Improvements were evident in standardized tests measuring attention, short-term memory and reaction time; the average extent of improvement resulting from ginkgo treatment was 10 to 20 percent.

(Barry S. Oken, MD; Daniel M. Storzbach, PhD; Jeffrey A. Kaye, MD. The Efficacy of Ginkgo biloba on Cognitive Function in Alzheimer Disease. Arch Neurol. 1998;55:1409-1415).

The medical benefits of Ginkgo biloba extract (GBE) rely primarily on two groups of active components: the ginkgo flavone glycosides and the terpene lactones. Many people with memory difficulties have reported clearer thinking when taking Ginkgo. Some evidence indicates that Ginkgo can offset damage caused by "age-related" disease.

It is important to find a form of Ginkgo Biloba which is standardized for 24% glycosides and 6% terpenes. As a memory enhancer, Ginkgo Biloba should be taken in dosages of 120-240 mg per day. It may need to be taken for six to eight weeks before desired actions are noticed.  Click here to Learn More.

(Ferrandini C, Droy-Lefaix MT, Christen Y, eds. Ginkgo biloba Extract (EGb 761) as a Free Radical Scavenger. Paris: Elsevier, 1993).

Phosphatidyl Serine (PS) is a naturally occurring phospholipid nutrient that is essential to our normal bodily functioning. It is most concentrated in the brain. It is involved in a whole host of nerve cell functions, including nerve neurotransmitter release and synaptic activity. Human trials on PS as a memory aid date back to the 1970’s. There are currently 64 human studies on record in the peer-reviewed literature, the findings of which unequivocally confirm that PS can alleviate, ameliorate and sometimes reverse age-related decline of memory, learning, concentration, word skills and mood. It appears to do this by strengthening the ability of neurons to transmit electrical potentials, which aids the communications between neurons which is essential for memory. In addition, PS activates Protein Kinase C (PKC), which aids in the release of such neurotransmitters as dopamine, serotonin and acetylcholine.

So far, two double blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trials of PS have been conducted primarily in the United States. Both were multi-center studies coordinated by T. H. Crook, PhD, from the Memory Assessment Clinics (MAC) of Bethesda, Maryland.

In the first study (1991), 149 subjects, aged 50-75, were studied. PS was given at 300mg per day (lOOmg three times per day), versus a placebo, for 12 weeks. After a 3 week evaluation, the PS subjects demonstrated significantly better memory than the placebo group. These results did not hold for the complete trial period, however. The researchers then turned to a sub-group or cluster of 57 subjects who were more memory impaired than the first group. This time the PS group had improved significantly by the end of the 12 week trial. On average, the ‘cognitive age’ of subjects in the PS group was reduced by 12 years.

(Crook TH, et al, 1991. "Effects of phosphatidylserine in age-associated memory impairment." Neurol. 41: 644-649).

In the second study (1992), 51 subjects were studied. The average subject age was 71 years. Again subjects were given 300mg PS versus placebo daily for 12 weeks. In this study, the PS group demonstrated significant cognitive improvement throughout the entire 12 week period. Again a sub group was identified (those with relatively mild cognitive impairment at the outset). This group showed significant improvement in their ability to recall names, locations, details of events from the previous day and week, as well as ability to maintain concentration.  Click here to Learn More.

(Crook TH, et al, 1992. "Effects of phosphatidylserine in Alzheimer's disease." Psychopharmacol. Bull. 28: 61-66).

Huperzine A (HupA) is an alkaloid found in the Chinese herb Huperzia Serrata. Hup A acts as an inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase , the enzyme which cuts acetylcholine in half. In China it has been traditionally used to treat Alzheimer’s and to improve cognitive and memory functioning. A number of clinical studies have been undertaken in China to quantify the benefits of using HupA as a memory enhancer.

In a 1999 study, 60 patients aged 52 to 80 with impaired faculties were treated with synthetic HupA (200 micrograms twice daily) or placebo for 60 days. Based on four of the most important psychological tests, including memory function, the improvement rates in the HupA group ranged from 43% to 70%. The test also indicated that it made no difference whether HupA was administered in capsule or tablet form.

(Xu SS, Cai ZY, Qu ZW, Yang RM, Cai YL, Wang GQ, Su XQ, Zhong XS, Cheng RY, Xu WA, Li JX, Feng B. Huperzine-A in capsules and tablets for treating patients with Alzheimer's disease. Acta Pharmacol Sin 1999 Jun;20(6):486-90).

In another 1999 study, researchers selected 34 matched pairs of apparently normal junior middle school students. In a double-blind trial, one member of each pair, chosen randomly, was given 100 micrograms of synthetic HupA twice daily for four weeks, while the other member received the placebo. The students' memory quotients were measured before and after the trial, and their academic performance in their Chinese, English, and mathematics lessons was monitored as well. At the end of the study, the HupA group scored significantly better than the control group on standard memory tests described as "accumulation," "recognition," "reproduction," "association," "tactual [tactile] memory," and "number of recitation," but not on tests of "picture memory" or "understanding." They had also done significantly better in their Chinese and English lessons, but not in math. No side effects of any kind were noted.

(Sun QQ, Xu SS, Pan JL, Guo HM, Cao WQ. Huperzine-A capsules enhance memory and learning performance in 34 pairs of matched adolescent students. Acta Pharmacol Sin 1999 Jul;20(7):601-3).

Carnitine occurs naturally in the diet, and is particularly found in animal products. Acetyl-l-carnitine (ALCAR) is the acetylated form of L-carnitine, both of which occur naturally in the body and play a vital role in the transportation of fats into mitochondria, as well as assisting in the production of acetylcholine (ACh). ALCAR has been shown to increase levels of dopamine in aged rats, as well as serve as a precursor for acetylcholine, the most widely dispersed neurotransmitter in the human brain, primarily responsible for learning and memory.

In a 1991 study, supplemental acetyl-L-carnitine was combined with lipoic acid (a powerful natural antioxidant). Subjects who were given the combination demonstrated significant improvement in memory. Researchers said that together the two chemicals "tune up" the mitochondria, the energy-producing organelles that power all cells. Mitochondrial decay is believed to be the primary reason for age-related deterioration of cognitive function and energy levels.  Click here to Learn More.

(Spagnoli A.U. et al. Age-associated mitochondrial oxidative decay: Improvement of carnitine acetyltransferase substrate-binding affinity and activity in brain by feeding old rats acetyl-L-carnitine and/or R-alpha-lipoic acid. PNAS 99(4):1876-81. 1991).

Vinpocetine is a chemical derived from vincamine, a constituent found in the leaves of common periwinkle ( Vinca minor) as well as the seeds of various African plants. It is used as a treatment for memory loss and mental impairment.

In a 1991 double-blind, placebo-controlled study lasting 16 weeks, 203 patients described as having mild to moderate psychosyndromes, including primary dementia, were treated with varying doses of vinpocetine or placebo. Significant improvement was achieved in the vinpocetine-treated group as measured by "global improvement" and cognitive performance scales. Three 10-milligram doses daily were as effective or more effective than three 20-milligram doses daily. Similarly good results were found in another double-blind clinical trial testing vinpocetine versus placebo in elderly patients with cerebrovascular and central nervous system degenerative disorders. Studies of Alzheimer's disease, however, have shown no vinpocetine benefit.  Click here to Learn More.

(Hindmarch I, Fuchs HH, Erzigkeith H. Efficacy and tolerance of vinpocetine in ambulant patients suffering from mild to moderate organic psychosyndromes. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 1991; 6:31-43).

Bacopa Monniera is a small, creeping herb with light purple flowers. It grows prolifically in wet soil, shallow water and marshes in India and the Tropics. The plant is known as brahmi in India, 'ae'ae in Hawai'i, and otomeazene in Japan.  For centuries it has been used as a ‘brain tonic’ to enhance memory and concentration as well as providing positive benefits for sufferers of epilepsy and anxiety.

The active constituents that have been identified in Bacopa Monniera include the alkaloids brahmine and herpestine, saponins d-mannitol and hersaponin, acid A, monnierin, betulic acid, stigmastarol, beta-sitosterol. All of these are believed to be responsible for the pharmacological benefits of bacopa. Bacosides A and B.5 are the compounds that researchers believe are responsible for it’s cognitive effects (Chatterji N, Rastorgi RP, Dhar ML. Chemical examination of Bacopa monniera Wettst. Part I: isolation of chemical constituents. Indian J Chem 1963;1:212).

Bacopa’s ability to positively impact upon cognitive ability appears to be due to the enhancement of nerve impulse transmission as a result of the actions of triterpinoid saponins and their bacosides, specifically bacosides A and B. Damaged neurons are repaired by these bacosides due to their ability to enhance kinase activity, neuronal synthesis and restore synaptic activity.

A 2001 double blind, placebo controlled study by Nathan, Clarke and Lloyd, et al. gave a single dose of 300 mg Bacopa monniera extract (standardized to 55-percent combined bacosides A and B) or placebo to 38 healthy male volunteers, between the ages of 18 and 60. Subjects were tested two hours after administration. No significant changes in cognitive function were exhibited in comparison to baseline values (Nathan PJ, Clarke J, Lloyd J, et al. The acute effects of an extract of Bacopa monniera (Brahmi) on cognitive function in healthy normal subjects. Hum Psychopharmacol 2001;16:345-351).

However, another study, by the same researchers, showed significant cognitive gains when the administration of Bacopa monniera extract was continued over a 12 week period. 46 volunteers were divided into treatment and placebo groups and tested at baseline and again after 5 and 12 weeks. After 12 weeks, significant improvements were noted in the treatment group in terms of verbal learning, memory consolidation, and speed of early information processing. No gains were evident after 5 weeks ( Stough C, Lloyd J, Clarke J, et al. The chronic effects of an extract of Bacopa monniera (Brahmi) on cognitive function in healthy human subjects. Psychopharmacology 2001;156:481-484).

In 1987, a study was conducted in India by Sharma, Chaturvedi and Tewari to evaluate the cognitive effect of bacopa monniera on children. The study involved 40 children ,divided into treatment and placebo groups. The treatment group received one teaspoonful of Bacopa syrup three times per day for three months. The placebo group were given syrup simplex. At the end of the trial the groups were measured for cognitive enhancement. The treatment group had significant improvements exploratory drive, perceptual images of patterns, and perceptual organization and reasoning ability (as measured by reaction time). (Sharma R, Chaturvedi C, Tewari PV. Efficacy of Bacopa monnieri in revitalizing intellectual functions in children. J Res Edu Indian Med 1987;Jan-June:1-12)

In 2000, Negi, Singh and Kushwaha , conducted a study involving 36 children with diagnosed attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. 19 of the children were given 50 mg of Bacopa extract (standardized to contain 20-percent bacosides) twice daily for 12 weeks. The remaining 17 childen were given a placebo. All children were given a final four weeks of placebo treatment. The treatment group exhibited a marked improvement in sentence repetition, logical memory, and paired associate learning tasks after 12 weeks and managed to maintain these gains at 16 weeks (Negi KS, Singh YD, Kushwaha KP, et al. Clinical evaluation of memory enhancing properties of Memory Plus in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Ind J Psychiatry 2000;42:Supplement).  Click here to Learn More.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is an omega-3 fatty acid. It is found in seafood, especially mackerel, salmon, striped bass, rainbow trout, halibut, tuna, and sardines. DHA is one of two key Omega-3 fatty acids (the other being eicosapentanoic acid (EPA) that provide fluidity to cell membranes and improve communication between brain cells. DHA has also been shown to increase the rate of transmission of the brainwave ‘P300”, which has been linked to memory and learning. 

(Myanaga, K., K. Yonemura, and K. Yazawa. DHA shortens P300 latency in healthy persons. In International Conference on Highly Unsaturated Fatty Acids in Nutrition and Disease Prevention. 1996 Barcelona, Spain).

In a 2001 Japanese study, scientists fed mice a diet of 5% sardine oil. After 12 months the mice were able to navigate a maze much faster than were mice fed a diet containing 5% palm oil. Brain analysis revealed that the mice fed sardine oil had much higher levels of DHA than the palm oil fed mice.  Click here to Learn More.

(Lim S, Suzuki H. Changes in maze behavior of mice occur after sufficient accumulation of docosahexaenoic acid in brain. J Nutr. 2001 Feb;131(2):319-24).

Folic acid is a B vitamin which has been shown to be beneficial for brain function and memory enhancement. It is plentiful in green vegetables such as broccoli, asparagus, peas, and lettuce, as well as beans, whole grains, and orange juice. Breads, pastas, rice, and flour are also commonly fortified with the nutrient.

In a 2005 study, Dutch researchers tested 818 healthy older adults, ages 50 to 75, none of whom were suffering from Alzheimer's disease. Half were given a pill containing 800 micrograms (mcg) of folic acid for three years. The other half were given a placebo. After three years, those adults taking the folic acid had scores on memory tests that were similar to those of persons five years younger. They also had scores of information-processing and muscle speed that were similar to someone two years younger.

(Jane Durga, et al. Wageningen University, the Netherlands. International Conference on Prevention of Dementia, Alzheimer's Association, Washington, D.C., June 20, 2005).

In another 2005 study, men and women aged 60 and up who regularly consumed the daily recommended daily allowance (RDA) of 400 micrograms (mcg) of folic through foods and supplements cut their risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease by over 50 percent.

(Maria Corrada, Sc.D., Claudia Kawas, M.D., et al: Reduced Risk of Alzheimer's Disease with High Folate Intake: The Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Alzheimer's & Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer's Association. Volume 1, Number 1, July 2005).

Panax ginseng is one of the most widely used and highly researched species of ginseng. It has long been used to combat fatigue. Recent studies have shown that, when combined with gingko biloba, panax ginseng can have cognitive benefits.

In a 2000 double blind, placebo controlled UK study of 256 healthy middle-aged volunteers, a ginkgo / ginseng combination was found to produce an average 7.5% improvement to a number of different aspects of memory, including working and long-term memory.

(Wesnes KA, Ward T, McGinty A, Petrino O: The memory enhancing effects of a Ginkgo biloba/Panax ginseng combination in healthy middle-aged volunteers. Psychopharmacology (Berl.). 2000 Nov;152(4):353-61).

Gotu Kola is a plant that grows in a widespread distribution in tropical areas such as India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Madagascar, and South Africa. It has a long history of use in Ayurvedic medicine as a cure for agitation, memory loss, anxiety, and insomnia, among other health problems. An Indian study published in the Journal of Indian Medicine looked at the effects of Gotu Kola on the general mental ability of mentally retarded children. The findings showed that the youngsters taking 500 mg of Gotu Kola a day increased their powers of concentration and attention, while those given a placebo showed no such improvement.

(Murray MT. The Healing Power of Herbs. Rocklin, CA: Prima Publishing, 1995, 171-83).

DMAE (2-dimethylaminoethanol), may increase levels of the brain neurotransmitter acetylcholine. It appears to enhance the brain’s ability to store and retrieve information. Studies have shown that alertness and cognition are improved at a dosage of 400 mg per day. Studies have used up to 1,600 mg per day, with no reported side effects.  Click here Learn More.

(Fisman M, Mersky H, Helmes E. Double-blind trial of 2-dimethylaminoethanol in Alzheimer’s disease. Am J Psych 1981;138:970-72).